Ruth Haines
Since the September 11 attacks, there have been reports of increased racial profiling at US airports, with individuals of Middle Eastern and Maghrebi descent, as well as those who appear Muslim, being targeted. In addition, technologies such as full-body scanners have been criticized for discriminating against passengers of color, reinforcing human biases, and leading to invasive pat-downs. While some airports, like Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport, have made strides in carbon neutrality, the issue of racial neutrality remains a concern, with a history of segregation and discrimination in US airports, particularly in the South, and ongoing allegations of racial profiling by law enforcement and TSA agents.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Airports with reported racial profiling | Logan International Airport in Boston, Los Angeles International Airport, Miami International Airport |
| Airports with reported resistance to desegregation | Airports in Jackson, Mississippi, Montgomery, Alabama, and New Orleans, Louisiana |
| Airports with reported direct action against racial discrimination | Atlanta Airport |
| Airports with reported racial profiling by technology | Full-body scanners at airports across the United States |
| Airports with reported racial profiling by security officials | Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport |
| Airports with reported racial profiling by screening techniques | Logan International Airport in Boston |
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What You'll Learn
Racial profiling at US airports post-9/11
Since the September 11 attacks in 2001, there has been a reported increase in racial profiling at US airports. People who appear to be Muslim or of Middle Eastern, South Asian, Arab, or Maghrebi descent have been targeted by law enforcement officials because of their race, religious appearance, or ethnic appearance. This has resulted in invasive practices such as hair pat-downs, which disproportionately affect Black passengers, and behavioural screening systems, which have been criticised for encouraging racial profiling.
In the wake of 9/11, US policies intensified police militarisation and expanded mass surveillance, targeting Muslims and people of Middle Eastern, South Asian, and Arab descent. This has intensified the criminalisation of many racialised groups, including Muslims, Arabs, Latinx immigrant communities, Black and Indigenous organisers, and protest movements. The US government marked these communities as presumed national security threats, eroding their privacy and individual liberties and bolstering Islamophobic and xenophobic public narratives.
One example of racial profiling at US airports is the case of King Downing, the national coordinator of the American Civil Liberties Union's Campaign Against Airport Racial Profiling. Downing, who is Black and wears a short beard, alleges that he was a victim of racial profiling by police at Logan International Airport in Boston, MA. He was stopped and questioned by state police after arriving on a flight to attend a meeting on racial profiling. He has since sued the Massachusetts Port Authority and the Massachusetts State Police, claiming that they violated his constitutional rights and that the behavioural screening system used at Logan Airport encourages racial profiling.
Another example is the Obama administration's decision to heighten airport security for passengers travelling to the US from 14 nations. This triggered a backlash of complaints from Muslim and privacy groups who argued that President Barack Obama's response to terror threats amounted to racial profiling.
Despite the belief that racial profiling can enhance security, studies have shown that it is no more effective than random profiling. In fact, any form of profiling may be less secure than random profiling, as a terrorist cell can simply send multiple members through security until one is not profiled and can then carry out an attack. Additionally, racial profiling contributes to discrimination and reinforces human biases, leading to longer lines, invasive pat-downs, missed flights, and missed weapons during security tests.
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Behavioural screening systems and racial profiling
Since the September 11 attacks in 2001, there has been an increase in racial profiling at airports in the United States. People who appear to be Muslim or of Middle Eastern and Maghrebi descent have been routinely targeted by law enforcement officials. This has led to concerns about civil liberties and the effectiveness of racial profiling as a security measure.
Behavioural screening systems, also known as behavioural detection programmes, have been implemented in several US airports as an additional security measure. These programmes involve the use of plainclothes agents who conduct interviews with travellers to identify potential signs of deception or "mal-intent". However, these programmes have been criticised for being unscientific and unreliable, and there have been allegations of racial and religious profiling by behaviour detection officers.
For example, at Logan Airport in Boston, the Behaviour Assessment Screening System (BASS) was implemented in 2002, allowing police to question passengers whose behaviour appeared "suspicious". King Downing, the national coordinator of the American Civil Liberties Union's (ACLU) Campaign Against Airport Racial Profiling, has criticised BASS, alleging that it encourages racial profiling. He has sued the Massachusetts Port Authority and the Massachusetts State Police, claiming that they violated his constitutional rights by targeting him because of his race.
Another example is the Transportation Security Administration's (TSA) Screening Passengers by Observation Techniques (SPOT) programme, which has been criticised by the ACLU for relying on dubious behavioural science and amounting to surveillance of unsuspecting air travellers, particularly Muslims and Latinos. Internal investigations by the TSA have revealed instances of racial and religious profiling by its officials, with one supervisor instructing the profiling of passengers based on race and another implementing a procedure for profiling or identifying illegal aliens.
Full-body scanners used in airports have also been criticised for discriminating against passengers of colour. These scanners often have trouble reading thick hair and certain head coverings, leading to inconvenient and embarrassing hair pat-downs for passengers. While the TSA has stated that screenings are conducted without regard to a person's race or other factors, biased technologies can still perpetuate inequality and discrimination.
Overall, while behavioural screening systems are intended to enhance security at airports, they have been criticised for being ineffective and contributing to racial profiling and discrimination. As such, racial profiling at airports continues to be a concern, and efforts have been made to phase out behavioural detection programmes and implement anti-discrimination training for employees.
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Discrimination against passengers of colour
Since the September 11 attacks on the US in 2001, there have been reports of increased racial profiling at airports. People who appear to be Muslim or of Middle Eastern and Maghrebi descent are often targeted. Law enforcement officials routinely stop individuals based on their race, religion, and ethnic appearance.
One example of racial profiling at US airports is the "Behavior Assessment Screening System" program implemented by Logan Airport in 2002. This program allows police to question passengers whose behavior appears "suspicious". King Downing, the national coordinator of the American Civil Liberties Union's Campaign Against Airport Racial Profiling, claimed that he was a victim of profiling by police at Logan International Airport in Boston. He alleged that the behavioral screening system used at Logan Airport encourages racial profiling and sued the Massachusetts Port Authority and the Massachusetts State Police for violating his constitutional rights.
Another example of racial profiling is the heightened airport security for passengers traveling to the US from 14 nations implemented by the Obama administration. This decision triggered complaints from Muslim and privacy groups who argued that President Barack Obama's response to terror threats amounted to racial profiling.
Additionally, full-body scanners used at airports have been criticized for discriminating against passengers of color. These scanners often have trouble reading thick hair and certain head coverings, leading to inconvenient and embarrassing hair pat-downs, particularly for Black passengers. While the Transportation Security Administration (TSA) has stated that screenings are conducted without regard to a person's race, color, or other factors, many passengers of color feel profiled due to the limitations of the technology.
Racial profiling at airports can also occur in the form of invasive questioning by law enforcement officials. For example, a reader of The Guardian shared their experience of being racially profiled while traveling:
> "I live in Berlin and every time I go back home to Nottingham I get singled out at East Midlands airport – which is pretty small – often by a plainclothes policeman who takes me aside (after standard passport control) and questions me about why I’m in Nottingham and where I’m from and who I work for and what I do etc. It’s extremely humiliating because no one else gets taken aside and I’m always singled out."
Overall, racial profiling at US airports has been a persistent issue, with people of color, particularly those who appear to be Muslim or of Middle Eastern descent, being disproportionately targeted and subjected to invasive searches and questioning.
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Airport scanners and racial profiling
Airport security and racial profiling have been contentious issues in the United States, with reports of increased profiling after the September 11, 2001, attacks, often targeting people of Middle Eastern, Muslim, or Maghrebi descent. While some argue that profiling is necessary for security, others claim it is ineffective, unconstitutional, and discriminatory.
The Transportation Security Administration (TSA) has been at the centre of these debates, with its behaviour detection programs criticised for being unscientific, unreliable, and enabling racial and religious profiling. Lawsuits and studies have highlighted the negative impact of profiling on civil liberties and the need for better training and oversight to prevent unlawful discrimination. Despite policies prohibiting unlawful profiling, the practice persists, leading to backlash from civil rights groups.
Full-body scanners, also known as millimetre wave machines, are capable of detecting non-metallic objects but are not advanced enough to identify these objects. This has resulted in inconveniences and embarrassing hair pat-downs for passengers with thick hair or certain head coverings, disproportionately affecting people of colour. The technology itself is not inherently racist, but it reinforces human biases and perpetuates inequality in practice.
Some airports in the US have implemented behavioural assessment screening systems, which allow police to question passengers exhibiting suspicious behaviour. However, this has also been criticised as a form of racial profiling, as certain groups of people are more likely to be targeted.
While racial profiling in airport security may provide a sense of safety for some, it is important to consider the negative impact on civil liberties and the potential for discrimination and inequality. The debate surrounding airport security and racial profiling in the US remains ongoing, with calls for improved mechanisms to ensure compliance with anti-discrimination laws.
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Desegregation of airports in the American South
Despite the fact that African Americans had unrestricted access to aircraft cabins, airports in the American South were segregated for many decades of the twentieth century. Local municipalities, in charge of airport management, enforced segregation claiming local laws or customs as the basis for their actions. Mayors and airport managers in places such as Jackson, Mississippi, Montgomery, Alabama, and New Orleans, Louisiana, resisted change.
During the 1950s, the NAACP and Congressman Charles Diggs conducted studies that showed that the vast majority of Southern airports provided duplicate waiting rooms, restrooms, and dining facilities to enforce the separation of the races. In response, the NAACP and activists helped plaintiffs bring lawsuits against airport administrators and restaurants during this time. These lawsuits were a slow and tedious process, so civil rights leaders also tried to pressure the federal government and its regulatory agencies for change.
In 1961, during the Kennedy Administration, the federal government became more serious about enforcing civil rights at American airports. The Department of Justice initiated legal action against several cities to desegregate their airports in 1961 and 1962. Direct action campaigns targeted airports in Greenville, South Carolina; Tallahassee, Florida; and Raleigh-Durham, resulting in the desegregation of these airports. By 1964, all airports in the United States had been desegregated before the passing of the Civil Rights Act.
Despite this progress, racial profiling at airports has continued to be an issue. Since the September 11 attacks, there have been reports of increased racial profiling at airports, particularly targeting people who appear to be Muslim or of Middle Eastern and Maghrebi descent. Additionally, full-body scanners at airports have been criticized for discriminating against passengers of color, as the technology has trouble reading thick hair and certain head coverings.
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Frequently asked questions
Racial profiling is the practice of suspecting or targeting someone based on their race, religion, or ethnicity. In the context of airports, racial profiling refers to the targeting of individuals who appear to be of a particular race, religion, or ethnic background for heightened security checks or scrutiny.
Racial profiling in US airports has been a significant issue, especially after the September 11, 2001, attacks. Reports indicate an increase in racial profiling, particularly against individuals who appear to be Muslim or of Middle Eastern descent.
Racial profiling in US airports has led to invasive pat-downs, missed flights, and discrimination against passengers of color. It reinforces human biases and perpetuates inequality, causing inconvenience and embarrassment for those targeted.
While there is no definitive list of race-neutral airports in the US, Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport was the first carbon-neutral airport in North America and is now the largest carbon-neutral airport in the world. Additionally, in 1948, the Administrator of Civil Aeronautics ordered the integration of National Airport, ending discrimination and enabling travelers to use terminal services without segregation based on "race, color, or creed."
