The Evolution Of Travel: Highways Vs. Airports

The history of highways and airports is a fascinating one, with both playing a crucial role in transforming human civilisation and connecting people and goods across vast distances. The question of which came first is a complex one, as it depends on how we define each. If we're talking about the modern concept of highways and airports, with dedicated infrastructure, then highways came first. However, if we're talking about the more general concept of designated routes for transportation, then ancient civilisations had their versions of road systems and landing strips long before modern highways and airports were built.

The first highways in the traditional sense were invented by various ancient civilisations, including the Romans, Incas, and Mesopotamians. These road systems were crucial for the expansion and sustenance of their societies, with the Romans in particular setting a high standard for road engineering that wouldn't be rivalled for thousands of years. In the early 20th century, America's first transcontinental road, the Lincoln Highway, was created, laying the groundwork for the concept of long-distance, paved, and dedicated national highways.

The first airports, on the other hand, came later. The College Park Airport in Maryland, US, is considered the first airport in history, opening in 1909. It was little more than a couple of hangars, some fuel tanks, a strip of earth marked with chalk, and a rudimentary platform. It was with the rise of commercial flights in the 1920s that airports began to take on a more familiar shape, with the first exclusively commercial airport opening in Sydney in 1920.

In terms of modern highway and airport systems, highways once again came first. The U.S. Interstate Highway System was established in 1956, inspired by the efficiency of the German autobahn. This vast network of controlled-access highways revolutionised travel, allowing for high-speed, long-distance journeys without the impediment of intersections and signals. The concept of dedicated runways for aircraft, on the other hand, emerged towards the end of World War II in Nazi Germany, where the well-developed Reichsautobahn system allowed military aircraft to use their motorways.

The first airports and the evolution of highways

The Beginnings of Aviation and Highways

The dream of taking to the skies has captivated humans for centuries, with Spanish inventor Diego Marín de Aguilera taking to the skies in a wooden structure with feathers over 200 years ago. However, it was the Wright brothers who made history in 1903 with the first-ever flight of an aeroplane. This achievement sparked "aviation fever", leading to the development of the first airport in College Park, Maryland, in 1909. Around the same time, the invention and evolution of highways were also gaining momentum.

Ancient Highways

The concept of highways is not new, with ancient civilisations like the Romans, Incas, and Mesopotamians building road systems crucial for their societies' expansion and sustenance. The Roman road systems, established around the 4th century BCE, set a high standard for road engineering that wouldn't be rivalled for thousands of years. These roads were strategically designed and carefully constructed to facilitate efficient travel, communication, and military logistics across the Roman Empire.

Modern Highways

In the early 20th century, the rise of the automobile industry fuelled the demand for reliable, extensive, and interconnected road systems. This led to initiatives like the Lincoln Highway, America's first transcontinental road, conceived in 1913. However, it was post-World War II when the modern highway system truly began to take shape. Influenced by the efficiency of the German autobahn, President Dwight D. Eisenhower championed the Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1956, giving birth to the U.S. Interstate Highway System. This network of controlled-access highways revolutionised travel, enabling high-speed, long-distance journeys without the hindrance of intersections and signals.

The Evolution of Airports

While the first airports were little more than open fields with rudimentary hangars and fuel tanks, they laid the foundation for the air travel we know today. Over time, improvements in aircraft design and increasing air traffic led to advancements in airport infrastructure. Runways evolved from circular or fan-shaped layouts to the straight, strategically aligned runways we see today, capable of accommodating larger aircraft and minimising the impact of crosswinds. The introduction of jetways or fingers in the 1960s changed the boarding experience, providing a direct, enclosed connection between the terminal and the aircraft.

Highways as Auxiliary Airbases

While highways and airports have distinct purposes, there is some overlap in their functionality. During World War II, Nazi Germany's well-developed highway system served as auxiliary airbases, allowing military aircraft to continue operating even if their designated airbases were damaged or destroyed. This concept of road runways or highway strips gained traction during the Cold War, with many countries constructing sections of highways capable of quickly converting into emergency runways. These highway strips typically have thicker-than-normal surfaces and solid concrete bases, and can be activated within 24 to 48 hours.

In conclusion, the evolution of highways and the development of airports have transformed the way we travel and connect with the world. From ancient road systems to modern interstate highways and from open fields to bustling international airports, our ambition to conquer the skies and explore new horizons continues to shape our society, culture, and economic growth.

The Dwight D. Eisenhower National System of Interstate and Defense Highways

Eisenhower's interest in highways was influenced by his experiences as a young Army officer. In 1919, he participated in the US Army's first transcontinental motor convoy from Washington, DC, to San Francisco. The convoy encountered many setbacks, including poor-quality bridges and engines clogged with desert sand. This experience, along with witnessing the German autobahn network during World War II, shaped Eisenhower's views on the importance of highways for national defence.

The Eisenhower Interstate System aimed to construct a network of freeways with nationally unified standards for construction and signage. The system was to be funded primarily through fuel taxes, with the federal government covering 90% of the cost. The original cost estimate for the system was $25 billion over 12 years, but it ultimately cost $114 billion (equivalent to $618 billion in 2023) and took 35 years to complete.

The construction of the Eisenhower Interstate System had a significant impact on the United States. It contributed to the decline of passenger rail and the expansion of the trucking industry, enabling the growth of suburban communities and car-dependent urban areas, particularly in the Sun Belt. The system also facilitated interstate commerce and improved the mobility of military troops and vehicles.

However, the construction of the highways also led to the displacement of over one million people, particularly in minority neighbourhoods, and contributed to racial segregation and the decline of public transportation. The routing of the highways through cities and towns also resulted in the destruction of established neighbourhoods and bypassed many small towns and rural merchants.

The Federal Aid Road Act of 1916

The Act provided $75 million of federal money in 50-50 matching funds to the states to build up to 6% of their roads statewide over a five-year period. The funds were to be distributed to the states based on a formula incorporating each state's geographic area, population, and existing road network. To obtain the funding, states were required to submit project plans, surveys, specifications, and estimates to the Secretary of Agriculture.

The rise of the automobile at the start of the 20th century, especially after the introduction of the low-price Ford Model T in 1908, created a demand for better roads on a national level. The Federal Aid Road Act was instrumental in extending and improving the country's road system, which was previously in a deplorable condition. The Act also served a social function by focusing on rural post roads, enhancing life in rural America.

The federal-aid highway program initiated by the Act got off to a slow start, with only $5 million available in the first year. The entry of the United States into World War I in April 1917 further hindered its implementation, causing personnel and material shortages. The war also led to an increase in trucking, which put additional strain on the roads.

The Reichsautobahn system

Hitler performed the first ceremonial shoveling of dirt on 23 September 1933, at Frankfurt, and work officially began simultaneously at multiple sites throughout the Reich the following spring. The first finished stretch, between Frankfurt and Darmstadt, opened on 19 May 1935, and the first 1,000 km were completed on 23 September 1936. The Reichsautobahn network was to extend into most of the planned Lebensraum in the conquered territories.

The Reichsautobahn was initially to be financed by a road use tax, but in 1936 this was rejected and instead fuel taxes were raised and car owners taxed. In addition, the Reichsbahn and the national bank provided loans. However, approximately 60% of the financing came from the Reichsanstalt für Arbeitsvermittlung und Arbeitslosenversicherung, the government employment department. At the end of the war, total costs were 6.5 billion Reichsmarks (equivalent to €26 billion in 2021).

Hitler intended to provide a small affordable "people's car" (Volkswagen) that his people could fill the autobahn with. Dr. Ferdinand Porsche completed the design of the vehicle in 1938, but in August 1939, Hitler ordered Dr. Porsche to switch the Wolfsburg plant to production of military vehicles. In the end, none of the purchasers received a Volkswagen or refunds as war needs dominated the country.

The autobahn was a rural network, without segments into and through Germany's cities. This seemed appropriate to Eisenhower, but in Washington, Thomas H. MacDonald and Herbert Fairbank of the U.S. Public Roads Administration saw the absence of metropolitan segments as a flaw that made the autobahn a poor model for America's future. Unlike Germany, traffic volumes were high in America, where car ownership was widespread.

The Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1956

The movement behind the construction of a transcontinental superhighway began in the 1930s when President Franklin D. Roosevelt expressed interest in building a network of toll superhighways to provide jobs for people affected by the Great Depression. However, the focus shifted to World War II, and it wasn't until the Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1944 that highway improvements were funded and a "National System of Interstate Highways" was authorized and designated.

When Eisenhower took office in 1953, he had already recognized the importance of highways. In 1919, he had participated in the U.S. Army's first transcontinental motor convoy from Washington, D.C., to San Francisco, where he gained first-hand knowledge of the poor state of American roads. During World War II, he witnessed the advantages of Germany's autobahn network and the benefits it provided to the Allies. These experiences shaped Eisenhower's views on highways and their role in national defense.

In his 1954 State of the Union Address, Eisenhower emphasized the need to protect the interests of citizens in a safe and adequate highway system. He proposed an American interstate highway system, justifying it as a national defense program that could facilitate troop transportation and evacuation in case of a nuclear attack.

There were several failed attempts to pass a national highway bill through Congress between 1954 and 1956, with controversies arising over the apportionment of funding between the federal government and the states. However, after considerable debate and amendment, the Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1956 was approved by both the House and the Senate.

The Act authorized the appropriation of additional sums for fiscal years 1957 to 1969 to expedite the construction, reconstruction, or improvement of the interstate system. It established a 13-year period for completing the system, with a 90-10 matching ratio for federal and state contributions. The Act also changed the name of the system to the "National System of Interstate and Defense Highways," reflecting its importance to national defense.

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